thatotherguy
That Other Guy
Ergogenic use of anabolic steroids
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Sorry its a direct copy paste from Wikipedia"
Since their discovery anabolic steroids (AAS) have been widely used as an ergogenic aid to improve performance in sports, to improve one's physical appearance or in self-medication for injury recovery or as an anti-aging aid.
Use of anabolic steroids for purposes other than treating medical conditions has been controversial. Over time, major sports organizations have increasingly moved to stem AAS use, styling it as "doping", a term borrowed from horse racing, and were successful in lobbying to have their use and possession criminalized. This has triggered an arms race between users and testing laboratories, resulting in a wide range of health concerns for users. In the general population, legislation in many countries now restricts and criminalizes AAS possession and trade. A political countercurrent has formed in some of these countries.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Protocols
2.1 Steroid cycle
2.2 Steroid stack
2.3 Minimization of side-effects
3 Prevalence and user profiles
3.1 General population
3.2 Sports
3.3 Celebrity controversies
4 Doping
5 Legal status and politics
5.1 United States
5.1.1 Movement for decriminalization
5.2 United Kingdom
6 Economics and law enforcement
6.1 Illegal trade
6.2 Production
6.3 Distribution
7 See also
8 References
[edit]History
Performance enhancing substances have been used for thousands of years in traditional medicine by societies around the world, with the aim of promoting vitality and strength.[1] In particular, the use of gonadal hormones pre-dates their identification and isolation: medical use of testicle extract began in the late 19th century while its effects on strength were still being studied.[2] In 1889, the 72-year-old British neurologist Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard injected himself with an extract of dog and guinea pig testicles, and reported at a scientific meeting that these injections had led to a variety of beneficial effects, but almost all experts, including some of Brown-Sequard's contemporaries, have agreed that these positive effects were induced by the power of suggestion.[3] In 2002 a study reproducing Brown-Séquard's method determined that the amount of testosterone obtained was too low to have any clinical effect.[4]
Testosterone, the most active anabolic-androgenic steroid produced by the testes, was first isolated in 1935 and chemically synthesized later in the same year. Synthetic derivatives of testosterone quickly followed, and by the end of the following decade both testosterone and its derivatives were applied with varying degrees of success for a number of medical conditions. It was not until the 1950s, however, that athletes began to discover that AAS could greatly increase their muscularity. According to John Ziegler the first confirmed use of an AAS in an international competition was, at the weightlifting championships in Vienna in 1954, when the Russians weightlifters said to have used testosterone.[5]
Throughout the 1960s and even into the 1970s, AAS use was confined largely to the elite levels of sport. While in the Eastern bloc programs of training went as far as forcing some athletes to take AAS,[citation needed] in the United States sports physicians, including John Ziegler, and medical texts were still widely proclaiming that AAS were ineffective in helping athletes gain muscle, but acknowledged the usefulness of AAS for debilitated patients. The package insert for Dianabol, an AAS of choice at the time, stated unequivocally "anabolic steroids do not enhance athletic ability."[5] Despite these warnings, by the mid 1960s use of AAS quickly spread into competition bodybuilding, and later to track and field events such as the shot put, and other sports where performance depended on muscle strength or speed of recovery during training.[6] At the end of the decade, Science published a study on the effects of Dianabol on athletes. This open label study, conducted by J.P. O'Shea and coworkers at Oregon State University, confirmed the muscle building effects of AAS on athletes that followed a high protein diet.[7] Two years later O'Shea successfully replicated the results in a double blind design.[5][8]
At the beginning of 1970s, sporting bodies including the IOC and NCAA declared the use of AAS unethical, but with no effective means of testing athletes, the issue remained academic.[5]
[edit]Protocols
This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009)
[edit]Steroid cycle
The longer the body's endogenous supply of testosterone is suppressed, the harder it will be for their hypothalamus/pituitary/testicular axis (HPTA) to recover. More serious health risks are associated with longer cycles, such as testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, heart problems, liver diseases, and in extreme cases, permanent suppression of the HPTA, necessitating permanent testosterone replacement therapy.[citation needed]
A steroid cycle is the period in time where an individual is actively taking anabolic steroids. A cycle typically lasts 7-14 weeks.[9]
[edit]Steroid stack
Athletes sometimes ‘stack’ steroids by taking AAS with different androgenic:anabolic ratios simultaneously. Although this practice is anecdotally documented in bodybuilding literature, its effects in humans are poorly studied. For ethical reasons, well-controlled clinical investigations have been mostly restricted to single agent regimens.[9]
[edit]Minimization of side-effects
Further information: AAS adverse effects and AAS mechanism of action
In men, AAS administration produces a predictable, dose-dependent depression of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), via the negative feedback loop of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPGA/HPTA). Thus, AAS administration can result in hypogonadism and oligospermia, leading to infertility, because both LH and FSH are required for spermatogenesis. Bodybuilding literature suggests that post-cycle treatment with chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) may speed recovery by stimulating LH production. A few medical case reports support this practice, but controlled studies are lacking. However, FSH activity—required for completion of spermatogenesis—is not precipitated by hCG. Many athletes who discontinue AAS have their sperm morphology normalize within 4 months, but some individuals required up to 1 year for normalisation of sperm morphology and motility.[9]
Since AAS can be converted by the enzyme aromatase into metabolites that act like the endogenous estrogens, male users may develop gynecomastia. Unlike HPGA suppression, the occurrence of this side-effect is unpredictable. In order to prevent it, many users of AAS self-administer antiestrogenic agents, typically SERMs such as tamoxifen. It is not known whether this practice is effective, nor if it poses any health risks.[9]
A recent small-scale randomized control trial suggests that recombinant human growth hormone may improve symptoms of anxiety, depression as well as cardiovascular risk markers in former users of AAS.[10]
[edit]Prevalence and user profiles
[edit]General population
It is difficult to determine what percent of the population in general have actually used anabolic steroids, but the number seems to be fairly low. Studies in the United States have shown anabolic steroid users tend to be mostly middle-class heterosexual men with a median age of about 25 who are noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes and use the drugs for cosmetic purposes.[11] Another study found that non-medical use of AAS among college students was at or less than 1%.[12] According to a recent survey, 78.4% of steroid users were noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes while about 13% reported unsafe injection practices such as reusing needles, sharing needles, and sharing multidose vials,[13] though a 2007 study found that sharing of needles was extremely uncommon among individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes, less than 1%.[14] Another 2007 study found that 74% of non-medical anabolic steroid users had secondary college degrees and more had completed college and less had failed to complete high school than is expected from the general populace.[14] The same study found that individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes had a higher employment rate and a higher household income than the general population.[14] Anabolic steroid users tend to research the drugs they are taking more than other controlled-substance users; however, the major sources consulted by steroid users include friends, non-medical handbooks, and fitness magazines, which can provide questionable or inaccurate information.[15]
Anabolic steroid users tend to be disillusioned by the portrayal of anabolic steroids as deadly in the media and in politics.[16] According to one study, AAS users also distrust their physicians and in the sample 56% had not disclosed their AAS use to their physicians.[17] Another 2007 study had similar findings, showing that while 66% of individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes were willing to seek medical supervision for their steroid use, 58% lacked trust in their physicians, 92% felt that the medical community's knowledge of non-medical anabolic steroid use was lacking and 99% felt that the public has an exaggerated view of the side effects of anabolic steroid use.[14] A recent study has also shown that long term AAS users were more likely to have symptoms of muscle dysmorphia and also showed stronger endorsement of more conventional male roles.[18]
[edit]Sports
Anabolic steroids have been used by men and women in many different kinds of professional sports (cricket, track and field, weightlifting, bodybuilding, shot put, cycling, baseball, wrestling, mixed martial arts, boxing, football, etc.) to attain a competitive edge or to assist in recovery from injury. Such use is prohibited by the rules of the governing bodies of many sports. Anabolic steroid use occurs among adolescents, especially by those participating in competitive sports. It has been suggested that the prevalence of use among high-school students in the U.S. may be as high as 2.7%.[19] Male students used anabolic steroids more frequently than female students and, on average, those who participated in sports used steroids more often than those who did not.
[edit]Celebrity controversies
In 1992, NFL football player Lyle Alzado died from brain cancer, which he attributed to the use of anabolic steroids.[20] However, although steroids have been known to cause liver cancer,[21] there is no published evidence that anabolic steroids cause either brain cancer or the specific type of T-cell lymphoma that caused his death.[20][22] Alzado's doctors stated that anabolic steroids did not contribute to his death.[23]
Arnold Schwarzenegger has admitted to using anabolic steroids during his bodybuilding career for many years before they were made illegal,[24] and in 1997 he underwent surgery to correct a defect relating to his heart. Some have assumed this was due to anabolic steroids.[25] Although anabolic steroid use can sometimes cause enlargement and thickening of the left ventricle, Schwarzenegger was born with a congenital genetic defect in which his heart had a bicuspid aortic valve; a condition that rendered his aortic valve with two cusps instead of three, which can occasionally cause problems later in life.[26]
[edit]Doping
See also: Doping (sport)
The use of anabolic steroids is banned by all major sporting bodies, including the International Olympic Committee, Major League Baseball, the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, the National Hockey League, WWE, ICC, ITF, FIFA, FINA, UEFA, the European Athletic Association, and the Brazilian Football Confederation. Anabolic steroids are controlled substances in many countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Netherlands (NL), the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (U.S.), while in other countries, such as Mexico and Thailand, they are readily available over-the-counter.
Anabolic steroids are banned by all major sports bodies including the Olympics,[27] the National Basketball Association,[28] the National Hockey League,[29] as well as the National Football League.[30] The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains the list of performance-enhancing substances used by many major sports bodies and includes all anabolic agents, which includes all anabolic steroids and precursors as well as all hormones and related substances.[31][32] Spain has passed an anti-doping law creating a national anti-doping agency.[33] Italy passed a law in 2000 where penalties range up to three years in prison if an athlete has tested positive for banned substances.[34] In 2006, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed into law ratification of the International Convention Against Doping in Sport which would encourage cooperation with WADA. Many other countries have similar legislation prohibiting anabolic steroids in sports including Denmark,[35] France,[36] the Netherlands[37] and Sweden.[38]
[edit]Legal status and politics
The legal status of anabolic steroids varies from country to country: some have stricter controls on their use or prescription than others though in many countries they are not illegal. In the U.S., anabolic steroids are currently listed as Schedule III controlled substances under the Controlled Substances Act, which makes the possession of such substances without a prescription a federal crime punishable by up to seven years in prison.[39] In Canada, anabolic steroids and their derivatives are part of the Controlled drugs and substances act and are Schedule IV substances, meaning that it is illegal to obtain or sell them without a prescription; however, possession is not punishable, a consequence reserved for schedule I, II or III substances. Those guilty of buying or selling anabolic steroids in Canada can be imprisoned for up to 18 months. Import and export also carry similar penalties.[40] Anabolic steroids are also illegal without prescription in Australia,[41] Argentina, Brazil and Portugal,[42] and are listed as Schedule 4 Controlled Drugs in the United Kingdom. On the other hand, anabolic steroids are readily available without a prescription in some countries such as Mexico and Thailand.
[edit]United States
The history of the U.S. legislation on anabolic steroids goes back to the late 1980s, when the U.S. Congress considered placing anabolic steroids under the Controlled Substances Act following the controversy over Ben Johnson's victory at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. During deliberations, the American Medical Association (AMA), Drug Enforcement Administration(DEA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as well as the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) all opposed listing anabolic steroids as controlled substances, citing the fact that use of these hormones does not lead to the physical or psychological dependence required for such scheduling under the Controlled Substance Act. Nevertheless, anabolic steroids were added to Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act in the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990.[43] The same act also introduced more stringent controls with higher criminal penalties for offenses involving the illegal distribution of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone. By the early 1990s, after anabolic steroids were scheduled in the U.S., several pharmaceutical companies stopped manufacturing or marketing the products in the U.S., including Ciba, Searle, Syntex and others. In the Controlled Substances Act, anabolic steroids are defined to be any drug or hormonal substance chemically and pharmacologically related to testosterone (other than estrogens, progestins, and corticosteroids) that promote muscle growth. The act was amended by the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004, which added prohormones to the list of controlled substances, with effect from January 20, 2005.[39]
[edit]Movement for decriminalization
After the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990 listed anabolic steroids as Schedule III controlled substances in the U.S., a small movement has arisen that is highly critical of current laws concerning anabolic steroids. On June 21, 2005, Real Sports aired a segment discussing the legality and prohibition of anabolic steroids in America.[44] The show featured Gary I. Wadler, M.D., chairman of the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency and a prominent anti-steroid activist. When pressed for scientific evidence by correspondent Armen Keteyian that anabolic steroids are as "highly fatal" as is often claimed, Wadler admitted there was no evidence. Bryant Gumbel concluded the "hoopla" concerning the dangers of anabolic steroids in the media was "all smoke and no fire".[44] The show also featured John Romano, a pro-steroid activist who writes "The Romano Factor", a pro-steroid column for bodybuilding magazine Muscular Development.
[edit]United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, anabolic steroids are classified as class C drugs for their illegal abuse potential, which puts them in the same class as benzodiazepines. In 2008 a study published in the Lancet suggested that anabolic steroids are less dangerous than most other illegal substances.[45]
[edit]Economics and law enforcement
[edit]Illegal trade
Several large buckets of tens of thousands of Anabolic steroid vials confiscated during a DEA raid
In countries where anabolic steroids are illegal or controlled, the majority of steroids are obtained illegally through black market trade.[46][47] These steroids are usually manufactured in other countries, and therefore must be smuggled across international borders. Like most significant smuggling operations, organized crime is involved.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]
A large stash of anabolic steroid vials confiscated during "Operation Raw Deal" undertaken by the Drug Enforcement Administration which ended in September 2007.
In September 2007 the DEA wrapped up an 18-month international investigation of illicit anabolic steroid use in which 124 arrests were made and which targeted over 25 Chinese companies which produced raw materials for producing steroids and human growth hormone. The companies exported raw products to Mexico, where the consumer products were packaged. The investigation, dubbed "Operation Raw Deal," was the largest anabolic steroid operation in United States history and involved China, Mexico, Canada, Australia, Germany and Thailand among other countries. The investigation also focused on online message boards where advice was given on how to use anabolic steroids and the DEA also intercepted hundreds of thousands of e-mails. The DEA has also stated that the e-mails intercepted were compiled into a massive database of names which could lead to months or years of future arrests of steroid users.[48][49][50]
[edit]Production
Anabolic steroids are frequently produced in pharmaceutical laboratories, but in nations where stricter laws are present, they are also produced in small home made underground laboratories, sometimes in kitchen sinks.[49] Common problems associated with illegal drug trades, such as chemical substitutions, cutting, and diluting, affect illegal anabolic steroids as well, so that when they reach the distribution level, the quality may be compromised and the drugs may be dangerous. In the 1990s, most U.S. producers such as Ciba, Searle and Syntex stopped making and marketing anabolic steroids within the U.S. However, in many other regions, particularly Eastern Europe, they are still produced in quantity. European anabolic steroids are the source of most medical grade anabolic steroids sold illegally in North America.[citation needed]
Anabolic steroids are still in wide use for veterinary purposes, and often contain the same components as those prepared for humans but without the same quality control.[51] These can also be dangerous, as they may have been produced and handled in cruder and less sterile environments.[52]
[edit]Distribution
In the U.S., Canada and Europe, illicit steroids are sometimes purchased just like any other illegal drug, through dealers who are able to obtain the drugs from a number of sources. Illegal anabolic steroids are sometimes sold at gyms, competitions, and through the mail, but may also be obtained through pharmacists, veterinarians, and physicians.[53] In addition, a significant number of counterfeit products are sold as anabolic steroids, particularly via mail order from websites posing as overseas pharmacies. Individuals also produce fake steroids and attempt to sell them over the Internet, causing a wide variety of health concerns.[citation needed] In the U.S., black market importation continues from Mexico, Thailand, and other countries where steroids are more easily available as they are not illegal.[54]
[edit]See also
Performance-enhancing drugs
Muscle dysmorphia
[edit]References
^ "A short doping history". Anti-Doping Hotline. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ Kuhn CM (2002). "Anabolic steroids". Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 57: 411–34. doi:10.1210/rp.57.1.411. PMID 12017555.
^ Hoberman JM, Yesalis CE (1995). "The history of synthetic testosterone". Scientific American 272 (2): 76–81. PMID 7817189.
^ Cussons AJ, Bhagat CI, Fletcher SJ, Walsh JP (2002). "Brown-Séquard revisited: a lesson from history on the placebo effect of androgen treatment". Med. J. Aust. 177 (11-12): 678–9. PMID 12463999.
^ a b c d Wade, N., 1972. Anabolic steroids: doctors denounce them, but athletes aren’t listening. Science 176, 1399–1403.
^ Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG (November 2008). "Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse: a looming public health concern?". Drug Alcohol Depend 98 (1-2): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.05.004. PMID 18599224.
^ L. C. Johnson and J. P. O'Shea, Science 164, 957 (1969)
^ J. P. O'Shea, Nutr. Rep. Int. 4, 363 (1971)
^ a b c d Kutscher EC, Lund BC, Perry PJ (2002). "Anabolic steroids: a review for the clinician". Sports Med 32 (5): 285–96. PMID 11929356.
^ Graham MR, Davies B, Kicman A, Cowan D, Hullin D, Baker JS (February 2007). "Recombinant human growth hormone in abstinent androgenic-anabolic steroid use: psychological, endocrine and trophic factor effects". Curr Neurovasc Res 4 (1): 9–18. PMID 17311540.
^ Yesalis CE, Kennedy NJ, Kopstein AN, Bahrke MS (1993). "Anabolic-androgenic steroid use in the United States". JAMA 270 (10): 1217–21. PMID 8355384.
^ McCabe SE, Brower KJ, West BT, Nelson TF, Wechsler H (2007). "Trends in non-medical use of anabolic steroids by U.S. college students: Results from four national surveys". Drug and alcohol dependence 90 (2–3): 243–51. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.04.004. PMID 17512138.
^ Andrew, Parkinson; Nick A. Evans (2006). "Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids: A Survey of 500 Users". Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise (American College of Sports Medicine) 38 (4): 644–651. PMID 16679978. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ a b c d Cohen, J.; Collins, R.; Darkes, J.; Gwartney, D. (2007). "A league of their own: demographics, motivations and patterns of use of 1,955 male adult non-medical anabolic steroid users in the United States". Feedback. Retrieved on 2007-11-14.
^ Copeland J, Peters R, Dillon P (March 1998). "A study of 100 anabolic-androgenic steroid users". Med. J. Aust. 168 (6): 311–2. PMID 9549549.
^ Eastley, Tony (January 18, 2006). "Steroid study debunks user stereotypes". abc.net.au. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ Pope HG, Kanayama G, Ionescu-Pioggia M, Hudson JI (2004). "Anabolic steroid users' attitudes towards physicians". Addiction 99 (9): 1189–94. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00781.x. PMID 15317640.
^ Kanayama G, Barry S, Hudson JI, Pope HG (2006). "Body image and attitudes toward male roles in anabolic-androgenic steroid users". The American journal of psychiatry 163 (4): 697–703. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.697. PMID 16585446.
^ Hickson R, Czerwinski S, Falduto M, Young A (1990). "Glucocorticoid antagonism by exercise and androgenic-anabolic steroids". Medicine and science in sports and exercise 22 (3): 331–40. PMID 2199753.
^ a b Puma, Mike. "Not the size of the dog in the fight". ESPN.com. ESPN. Retrieved on 2007-07-05.
^ Maravelias C, Dona A, Stefanidou M, Spiliopoulou C (2005). "Adverse effects of anabolic steroids in athletes. A constant threat". Toxicol. Lett. 158 (3): 167–75. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2005.06.005. PMID 16005168.
^ Woolston, Chris (2004-03-24). "Ills & Conditions". Consumer Health Interactive. Retrieved on 2007-06-28.
^ "Real Sports, Lyle Alzado". ****************. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ "Critics Slam Schwarzenegger on Steroids". Associated press. Retrieved on 2007-05-11.
^ "Schwarzenegger's friends and colleagues blast Premiere magazine and writer John Connolly for publishing article they denounce as total fabrication". Schwarzenegger.com. Oak Productions, Inc. 2001-03-08. Retrieved on 2008-04-14.
^ Guttman, Monika (1997). "Schwarzenegger gets new role: patient at University Hospital" (PDF). University of Southern California. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ "Olympic movement anti-doping code" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 1999. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "The nba and nbpa anti-drug program". NBA Policy. findlaw.com. 1999. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "NHL/NHLPA performance-enhancing substances program summary". nhlpa.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "List of Prohibited Substances" (PDF). nflpa.com. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "World anti-doping code" (PDF). WADA. 2003. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ "Prohibited list of 2005" (PDF). WADA. 2005. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Spain's senate passes anti-doping law". Associated press (Herald Tribune). October 5, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ Johnson, Kevin (2006-02-20). "Italian anti-doping laws could mean 3 years in jail". USA Today. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Act on promotion of doping-free sport" (PDF). kum.dk. 2004. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Protection of health of athletes and the fight against doping" (PDF). WADA. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Anti-doping legislation in the netherlands" (PDF). WADA. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "The Swedish Act prohibiting certain doping substances (1991:1969)" (PDF). WADA. 1991. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ a b "News from DEA, Congressional Testimony, 03/16/04". Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ "Controlled Drugs and Substances Act". Canada Department of Justice. Retrieved on 2007-04-25.
^ "Steroids". Australian Institute of Criminology. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Library of congress search". Library of congress. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ H.R. 4658
^ a b Bryant, Gumbel (21 June 2005). "Real Sports" (AVI video file). HBO. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ BBC NEWS | Health | Scientists want new drug rankings
^ Yesalis, Charles. (2000). Anabolic Steroids in Sport and Exercise ISBN 0-88011-786-9
^ Black, Terry (1996). "Does the Ban on Drugs in Sport Improve Societal Welfare?". Faculty of Business, Queensland University of Technology. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ YOST, Pete. "DEA Announces Wide-Ranging Steroid Busts". Associated press. Retrieved on 2007-09-24.
^ a b Assael, Shaun (2007-09-24). "'Raw Deal' busts labs across U.S., many supplied by China". ESPN The Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-09-24.
^ Peter, Josh (2007-09-24). "'Roids raids'". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved on 2007-09-24.
^ "Steroids". North Eastern AIDS Prevention Program. Victoria Australia Department of Human Services. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ "Anabolic Steroid Abuse and Violence" (PDF). NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. July 1997. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Steroids". National Institute on Drug Abuse. GDCADA. Retrieved on 2007-09-13.
^ "The Drug Enforcement Administration's International Operations (Redacted)". Office of the Inspector General. USDOJ. Retrieved on 2007-09-13.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Sorry its a direct copy paste from Wikipedia"
Since their discovery anabolic steroids (AAS) have been widely used as an ergogenic aid to improve performance in sports, to improve one's physical appearance or in self-medication for injury recovery or as an anti-aging aid.
Use of anabolic steroids for purposes other than treating medical conditions has been controversial. Over time, major sports organizations have increasingly moved to stem AAS use, styling it as "doping", a term borrowed from horse racing, and were successful in lobbying to have their use and possession criminalized. This has triggered an arms race between users and testing laboratories, resulting in a wide range of health concerns for users. In the general population, legislation in many countries now restricts and criminalizes AAS possession and trade. A political countercurrent has formed in some of these countries.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Protocols
2.1 Steroid cycle
2.2 Steroid stack
2.3 Minimization of side-effects
3 Prevalence and user profiles
3.1 General population
3.2 Sports
3.3 Celebrity controversies
4 Doping
5 Legal status and politics
5.1 United States
5.1.1 Movement for decriminalization
5.2 United Kingdom
6 Economics and law enforcement
6.1 Illegal trade
6.2 Production
6.3 Distribution
7 See also
8 References
[edit]History
Performance enhancing substances have been used for thousands of years in traditional medicine by societies around the world, with the aim of promoting vitality and strength.[1] In particular, the use of gonadal hormones pre-dates their identification and isolation: medical use of testicle extract began in the late 19th century while its effects on strength were still being studied.[2] In 1889, the 72-year-old British neurologist Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard injected himself with an extract of dog and guinea pig testicles, and reported at a scientific meeting that these injections had led to a variety of beneficial effects, but almost all experts, including some of Brown-Sequard's contemporaries, have agreed that these positive effects were induced by the power of suggestion.[3] In 2002 a study reproducing Brown-Séquard's method determined that the amount of testosterone obtained was too low to have any clinical effect.[4]
Testosterone, the most active anabolic-androgenic steroid produced by the testes, was first isolated in 1935 and chemically synthesized later in the same year. Synthetic derivatives of testosterone quickly followed, and by the end of the following decade both testosterone and its derivatives were applied with varying degrees of success for a number of medical conditions. It was not until the 1950s, however, that athletes began to discover that AAS could greatly increase their muscularity. According to John Ziegler the first confirmed use of an AAS in an international competition was, at the weightlifting championships in Vienna in 1954, when the Russians weightlifters said to have used testosterone.[5]
Throughout the 1960s and even into the 1970s, AAS use was confined largely to the elite levels of sport. While in the Eastern bloc programs of training went as far as forcing some athletes to take AAS,[citation needed] in the United States sports physicians, including John Ziegler, and medical texts were still widely proclaiming that AAS were ineffective in helping athletes gain muscle, but acknowledged the usefulness of AAS for debilitated patients. The package insert for Dianabol, an AAS of choice at the time, stated unequivocally "anabolic steroids do not enhance athletic ability."[5] Despite these warnings, by the mid 1960s use of AAS quickly spread into competition bodybuilding, and later to track and field events such as the shot put, and other sports where performance depended on muscle strength or speed of recovery during training.[6] At the end of the decade, Science published a study on the effects of Dianabol on athletes. This open label study, conducted by J.P. O'Shea and coworkers at Oregon State University, confirmed the muscle building effects of AAS on athletes that followed a high protein diet.[7] Two years later O'Shea successfully replicated the results in a double blind design.[5][8]
At the beginning of 1970s, sporting bodies including the IOC and NCAA declared the use of AAS unethical, but with no effective means of testing athletes, the issue remained academic.[5]
[edit]Protocols
This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009)
[edit]Steroid cycle
The longer the body's endogenous supply of testosterone is suppressed, the harder it will be for their hypothalamus/pituitary/testicular axis (HPTA) to recover. More serious health risks are associated with longer cycles, such as testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, heart problems, liver diseases, and in extreme cases, permanent suppression of the HPTA, necessitating permanent testosterone replacement therapy.[citation needed]
A steroid cycle is the period in time where an individual is actively taking anabolic steroids. A cycle typically lasts 7-14 weeks.[9]
[edit]Steroid stack
Athletes sometimes ‘stack’ steroids by taking AAS with different androgenic:anabolic ratios simultaneously. Although this practice is anecdotally documented in bodybuilding literature, its effects in humans are poorly studied. For ethical reasons, well-controlled clinical investigations have been mostly restricted to single agent regimens.[9]
[edit]Minimization of side-effects
Further information: AAS adverse effects and AAS mechanism of action
In men, AAS administration produces a predictable, dose-dependent depression of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), via the negative feedback loop of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPGA/HPTA). Thus, AAS administration can result in hypogonadism and oligospermia, leading to infertility, because both LH and FSH are required for spermatogenesis. Bodybuilding literature suggests that post-cycle treatment with chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) may speed recovery by stimulating LH production. A few medical case reports support this practice, but controlled studies are lacking. However, FSH activity—required for completion of spermatogenesis—is not precipitated by hCG. Many athletes who discontinue AAS have their sperm morphology normalize within 4 months, but some individuals required up to 1 year for normalisation of sperm morphology and motility.[9]
Since AAS can be converted by the enzyme aromatase into metabolites that act like the endogenous estrogens, male users may develop gynecomastia. Unlike HPGA suppression, the occurrence of this side-effect is unpredictable. In order to prevent it, many users of AAS self-administer antiestrogenic agents, typically SERMs such as tamoxifen. It is not known whether this practice is effective, nor if it poses any health risks.[9]
A recent small-scale randomized control trial suggests that recombinant human growth hormone may improve symptoms of anxiety, depression as well as cardiovascular risk markers in former users of AAS.[10]
[edit]Prevalence and user profiles
[edit]General population
It is difficult to determine what percent of the population in general have actually used anabolic steroids, but the number seems to be fairly low. Studies in the United States have shown anabolic steroid users tend to be mostly middle-class heterosexual men with a median age of about 25 who are noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes and use the drugs for cosmetic purposes.[11] Another study found that non-medical use of AAS among college students was at or less than 1%.[12] According to a recent survey, 78.4% of steroid users were noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes while about 13% reported unsafe injection practices such as reusing needles, sharing needles, and sharing multidose vials,[13] though a 2007 study found that sharing of needles was extremely uncommon among individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes, less than 1%.[14] Another 2007 study found that 74% of non-medical anabolic steroid users had secondary college degrees and more had completed college and less had failed to complete high school than is expected from the general populace.[14] The same study found that individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes had a higher employment rate and a higher household income than the general population.[14] Anabolic steroid users tend to research the drugs they are taking more than other controlled-substance users; however, the major sources consulted by steroid users include friends, non-medical handbooks, and fitness magazines, which can provide questionable or inaccurate information.[15]
Anabolic steroid users tend to be disillusioned by the portrayal of anabolic steroids as deadly in the media and in politics.[16] According to one study, AAS users also distrust their physicians and in the sample 56% had not disclosed their AAS use to their physicians.[17] Another 2007 study had similar findings, showing that while 66% of individuals using anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes were willing to seek medical supervision for their steroid use, 58% lacked trust in their physicians, 92% felt that the medical community's knowledge of non-medical anabolic steroid use was lacking and 99% felt that the public has an exaggerated view of the side effects of anabolic steroid use.[14] A recent study has also shown that long term AAS users were more likely to have symptoms of muscle dysmorphia and also showed stronger endorsement of more conventional male roles.[18]
[edit]Sports
Anabolic steroids have been used by men and women in many different kinds of professional sports (cricket, track and field, weightlifting, bodybuilding, shot put, cycling, baseball, wrestling, mixed martial arts, boxing, football, etc.) to attain a competitive edge or to assist in recovery from injury. Such use is prohibited by the rules of the governing bodies of many sports. Anabolic steroid use occurs among adolescents, especially by those participating in competitive sports. It has been suggested that the prevalence of use among high-school students in the U.S. may be as high as 2.7%.[19] Male students used anabolic steroids more frequently than female students and, on average, those who participated in sports used steroids more often than those who did not.
[edit]Celebrity controversies
In 1992, NFL football player Lyle Alzado died from brain cancer, which he attributed to the use of anabolic steroids.[20] However, although steroids have been known to cause liver cancer,[21] there is no published evidence that anabolic steroids cause either brain cancer or the specific type of T-cell lymphoma that caused his death.[20][22] Alzado's doctors stated that anabolic steroids did not contribute to his death.[23]
Arnold Schwarzenegger has admitted to using anabolic steroids during his bodybuilding career for many years before they were made illegal,[24] and in 1997 he underwent surgery to correct a defect relating to his heart. Some have assumed this was due to anabolic steroids.[25] Although anabolic steroid use can sometimes cause enlargement and thickening of the left ventricle, Schwarzenegger was born with a congenital genetic defect in which his heart had a bicuspid aortic valve; a condition that rendered his aortic valve with two cusps instead of three, which can occasionally cause problems later in life.[26]
[edit]Doping
See also: Doping (sport)
The use of anabolic steroids is banned by all major sporting bodies, including the International Olympic Committee, Major League Baseball, the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, the National Hockey League, WWE, ICC, ITF, FIFA, FINA, UEFA, the European Athletic Association, and the Brazilian Football Confederation. Anabolic steroids are controlled substances in many countries, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, the Netherlands (NL), the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (U.S.), while in other countries, such as Mexico and Thailand, they are readily available over-the-counter.
Anabolic steroids are banned by all major sports bodies including the Olympics,[27] the National Basketball Association,[28] the National Hockey League,[29] as well as the National Football League.[30] The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains the list of performance-enhancing substances used by many major sports bodies and includes all anabolic agents, which includes all anabolic steroids and precursors as well as all hormones and related substances.[31][32] Spain has passed an anti-doping law creating a national anti-doping agency.[33] Italy passed a law in 2000 where penalties range up to three years in prison if an athlete has tested positive for banned substances.[34] In 2006, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed into law ratification of the International Convention Against Doping in Sport which would encourage cooperation with WADA. Many other countries have similar legislation prohibiting anabolic steroids in sports including Denmark,[35] France,[36] the Netherlands[37] and Sweden.[38]
[edit]Legal status and politics
The legal status of anabolic steroids varies from country to country: some have stricter controls on their use or prescription than others though in many countries they are not illegal. In the U.S., anabolic steroids are currently listed as Schedule III controlled substances under the Controlled Substances Act, which makes the possession of such substances without a prescription a federal crime punishable by up to seven years in prison.[39] In Canada, anabolic steroids and their derivatives are part of the Controlled drugs and substances act and are Schedule IV substances, meaning that it is illegal to obtain or sell them without a prescription; however, possession is not punishable, a consequence reserved for schedule I, II or III substances. Those guilty of buying or selling anabolic steroids in Canada can be imprisoned for up to 18 months. Import and export also carry similar penalties.[40] Anabolic steroids are also illegal without prescription in Australia,[41] Argentina, Brazil and Portugal,[42] and are listed as Schedule 4 Controlled Drugs in the United Kingdom. On the other hand, anabolic steroids are readily available without a prescription in some countries such as Mexico and Thailand.
[edit]United States
The history of the U.S. legislation on anabolic steroids goes back to the late 1980s, when the U.S. Congress considered placing anabolic steroids under the Controlled Substances Act following the controversy over Ben Johnson's victory at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. During deliberations, the American Medical Association (AMA), Drug Enforcement Administration(DEA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as well as the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) all opposed listing anabolic steroids as controlled substances, citing the fact that use of these hormones does not lead to the physical or psychological dependence required for such scheduling under the Controlled Substance Act. Nevertheless, anabolic steroids were added to Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act in the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990.[43] The same act also introduced more stringent controls with higher criminal penalties for offenses involving the illegal distribution of anabolic steroids and human growth hormone. By the early 1990s, after anabolic steroids were scheduled in the U.S., several pharmaceutical companies stopped manufacturing or marketing the products in the U.S., including Ciba, Searle, Syntex and others. In the Controlled Substances Act, anabolic steroids are defined to be any drug or hormonal substance chemically and pharmacologically related to testosterone (other than estrogens, progestins, and corticosteroids) that promote muscle growth. The act was amended by the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004, which added prohormones to the list of controlled substances, with effect from January 20, 2005.[39]
[edit]Movement for decriminalization
After the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990 listed anabolic steroids as Schedule III controlled substances in the U.S., a small movement has arisen that is highly critical of current laws concerning anabolic steroids. On June 21, 2005, Real Sports aired a segment discussing the legality and prohibition of anabolic steroids in America.[44] The show featured Gary I. Wadler, M.D., chairman of the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency and a prominent anti-steroid activist. When pressed for scientific evidence by correspondent Armen Keteyian that anabolic steroids are as "highly fatal" as is often claimed, Wadler admitted there was no evidence. Bryant Gumbel concluded the "hoopla" concerning the dangers of anabolic steroids in the media was "all smoke and no fire".[44] The show also featured John Romano, a pro-steroid activist who writes "The Romano Factor", a pro-steroid column for bodybuilding magazine Muscular Development.
[edit]United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, anabolic steroids are classified as class C drugs for their illegal abuse potential, which puts them in the same class as benzodiazepines. In 2008 a study published in the Lancet suggested that anabolic steroids are less dangerous than most other illegal substances.[45]
[edit]Economics and law enforcement
[edit]Illegal trade
Several large buckets of tens of thousands of Anabolic steroid vials confiscated during a DEA raid
In countries where anabolic steroids are illegal or controlled, the majority of steroids are obtained illegally through black market trade.[46][47] These steroids are usually manufactured in other countries, and therefore must be smuggled across international borders. Like most significant smuggling operations, organized crime is involved.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]
A large stash of anabolic steroid vials confiscated during "Operation Raw Deal" undertaken by the Drug Enforcement Administration which ended in September 2007.
In September 2007 the DEA wrapped up an 18-month international investigation of illicit anabolic steroid use in which 124 arrests were made and which targeted over 25 Chinese companies which produced raw materials for producing steroids and human growth hormone. The companies exported raw products to Mexico, where the consumer products were packaged. The investigation, dubbed "Operation Raw Deal," was the largest anabolic steroid operation in United States history and involved China, Mexico, Canada, Australia, Germany and Thailand among other countries. The investigation also focused on online message boards where advice was given on how to use anabolic steroids and the DEA also intercepted hundreds of thousands of e-mails. The DEA has also stated that the e-mails intercepted were compiled into a massive database of names which could lead to months or years of future arrests of steroid users.[48][49][50]
[edit]Production
Anabolic steroids are frequently produced in pharmaceutical laboratories, but in nations where stricter laws are present, they are also produced in small home made underground laboratories, sometimes in kitchen sinks.[49] Common problems associated with illegal drug trades, such as chemical substitutions, cutting, and diluting, affect illegal anabolic steroids as well, so that when they reach the distribution level, the quality may be compromised and the drugs may be dangerous. In the 1990s, most U.S. producers such as Ciba, Searle and Syntex stopped making and marketing anabolic steroids within the U.S. However, in many other regions, particularly Eastern Europe, they are still produced in quantity. European anabolic steroids are the source of most medical grade anabolic steroids sold illegally in North America.[citation needed]
Anabolic steroids are still in wide use for veterinary purposes, and often contain the same components as those prepared for humans but without the same quality control.[51] These can also be dangerous, as they may have been produced and handled in cruder and less sterile environments.[52]
[edit]Distribution
In the U.S., Canada and Europe, illicit steroids are sometimes purchased just like any other illegal drug, through dealers who are able to obtain the drugs from a number of sources. Illegal anabolic steroids are sometimes sold at gyms, competitions, and through the mail, but may also be obtained through pharmacists, veterinarians, and physicians.[53] In addition, a significant number of counterfeit products are sold as anabolic steroids, particularly via mail order from websites posing as overseas pharmacies. Individuals also produce fake steroids and attempt to sell them over the Internet, causing a wide variety of health concerns.[citation needed] In the U.S., black market importation continues from Mexico, Thailand, and other countries where steroids are more easily available as they are not illegal.[54]
[edit]See also
Performance-enhancing drugs
Muscle dysmorphia
[edit]References
^ "A short doping history". Anti-Doping Hotline. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ Kuhn CM (2002). "Anabolic steroids". Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 57: 411–34. doi:10.1210/rp.57.1.411. PMID 12017555.
^ Hoberman JM, Yesalis CE (1995). "The history of synthetic testosterone". Scientific American 272 (2): 76–81. PMID 7817189.
^ Cussons AJ, Bhagat CI, Fletcher SJ, Walsh JP (2002). "Brown-Séquard revisited: a lesson from history on the placebo effect of androgen treatment". Med. J. Aust. 177 (11-12): 678–9. PMID 12463999.
^ a b c d Wade, N., 1972. Anabolic steroids: doctors denounce them, but athletes aren’t listening. Science 176, 1399–1403.
^ Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG (November 2008). "Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse: a looming public health concern?". Drug Alcohol Depend 98 (1-2): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.05.004. PMID 18599224.
^ L. C. Johnson and J. P. O'Shea, Science 164, 957 (1969)
^ J. P. O'Shea, Nutr. Rep. Int. 4, 363 (1971)
^ a b c d Kutscher EC, Lund BC, Perry PJ (2002). "Anabolic steroids: a review for the clinician". Sports Med 32 (5): 285–96. PMID 11929356.
^ Graham MR, Davies B, Kicman A, Cowan D, Hullin D, Baker JS (February 2007). "Recombinant human growth hormone in abstinent androgenic-anabolic steroid use: psychological, endocrine and trophic factor effects". Curr Neurovasc Res 4 (1): 9–18. PMID 17311540.
^ Yesalis CE, Kennedy NJ, Kopstein AN, Bahrke MS (1993). "Anabolic-androgenic steroid use in the United States". JAMA 270 (10): 1217–21. PMID 8355384.
^ McCabe SE, Brower KJ, West BT, Nelson TF, Wechsler H (2007). "Trends in non-medical use of anabolic steroids by U.S. college students: Results from four national surveys". Drug and alcohol dependence 90 (2–3): 243–51. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.04.004. PMID 17512138.
^ Andrew, Parkinson; Nick A. Evans (2006). "Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids: A Survey of 500 Users". Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise (American College of Sports Medicine) 38 (4): 644–651. PMID 16679978. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ a b c d Cohen, J.; Collins, R.; Darkes, J.; Gwartney, D. (2007). "A league of their own: demographics, motivations and patterns of use of 1,955 male adult non-medical anabolic steroid users in the United States". Feedback. Retrieved on 2007-11-14.
^ Copeland J, Peters R, Dillon P (March 1998). "A study of 100 anabolic-androgenic steroid users". Med. J. Aust. 168 (6): 311–2. PMID 9549549.
^ Eastley, Tony (January 18, 2006). "Steroid study debunks user stereotypes". abc.net.au. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ Pope HG, Kanayama G, Ionescu-Pioggia M, Hudson JI (2004). "Anabolic steroid users' attitudes towards physicians". Addiction 99 (9): 1189–94. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00781.x. PMID 15317640.
^ Kanayama G, Barry S, Hudson JI, Pope HG (2006). "Body image and attitudes toward male roles in anabolic-androgenic steroid users". The American journal of psychiatry 163 (4): 697–703. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.697. PMID 16585446.
^ Hickson R, Czerwinski S, Falduto M, Young A (1990). "Glucocorticoid antagonism by exercise and androgenic-anabolic steroids". Medicine and science in sports and exercise 22 (3): 331–40. PMID 2199753.
^ a b Puma, Mike. "Not the size of the dog in the fight". ESPN.com. ESPN. Retrieved on 2007-07-05.
^ Maravelias C, Dona A, Stefanidou M, Spiliopoulou C (2005). "Adverse effects of anabolic steroids in athletes. A constant threat". Toxicol. Lett. 158 (3): 167–75. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2005.06.005. PMID 16005168.
^ Woolston, Chris (2004-03-24). "Ills & Conditions". Consumer Health Interactive. Retrieved on 2007-06-28.
^ "Real Sports, Lyle Alzado". ****************. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ "Critics Slam Schwarzenegger on Steroids". Associated press. Retrieved on 2007-05-11.
^ "Schwarzenegger's friends and colleagues blast Premiere magazine and writer John Connolly for publishing article they denounce as total fabrication". Schwarzenegger.com. Oak Productions, Inc. 2001-03-08. Retrieved on 2008-04-14.
^ Guttman, Monika (1997). "Schwarzenegger gets new role: patient at University Hospital" (PDF). University of Southern California. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ "Olympic movement anti-doping code" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 1999. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "The nba and nbpa anti-drug program". NBA Policy. findlaw.com. 1999. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "NHL/NHLPA performance-enhancing substances program summary". nhlpa.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "List of Prohibited Substances" (PDF). nflpa.com. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "World anti-doping code" (PDF). WADA. 2003. Retrieved on 2007-07-10.
^ "Prohibited list of 2005" (PDF). WADA. 2005. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Spain's senate passes anti-doping law". Associated press (Herald Tribune). October 5, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ Johnson, Kevin (2006-02-20). "Italian anti-doping laws could mean 3 years in jail". USA Today. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Act on promotion of doping-free sport" (PDF). kum.dk. 2004. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Protection of health of athletes and the fight against doping" (PDF). WADA. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Anti-doping legislation in the netherlands" (PDF). WADA. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "The Swedish Act prohibiting certain doping substances (1991:1969)" (PDF). WADA. 1991. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ a b "News from DEA, Congressional Testimony, 03/16/04". Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ "Controlled Drugs and Substances Act". Canada Department of Justice. Retrieved on 2007-04-25.
^ "Steroids". Australian Institute of Criminology. 2006. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Library of congress search". Library of congress. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ H.R. 4658
^ a b Bryant, Gumbel (21 June 2005). "Real Sports" (AVI video file). HBO. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ BBC NEWS | Health | Scientists want new drug rankings
^ Yesalis, Charles. (2000). Anabolic Steroids in Sport and Exercise ISBN 0-88011-786-9
^ Black, Terry (1996). "Does the Ban on Drugs in Sport Improve Societal Welfare?". Faculty of Business, Queensland University of Technology. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ YOST, Pete. "DEA Announces Wide-Ranging Steroid Busts". Associated press. Retrieved on 2007-09-24.
^ a b Assael, Shaun (2007-09-24). "'Raw Deal' busts labs across U.S., many supplied by China". ESPN The Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-09-24.
^ Peter, Josh (2007-09-24). "'Roids raids'". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved on 2007-09-24.
^ "Steroids". North Eastern AIDS Prevention Program. Victoria Australia Department of Human Services. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
^ "Anabolic Steroid Abuse and Violence" (PDF). NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. July 1997. Retrieved on 2007-05-06.
^ "Steroids". National Institute on Drug Abuse. GDCADA. Retrieved on 2007-09-13.
^ "The Drug Enforcement Administration's International Operations (Redacted)". Office of the Inspector General. USDOJ. Retrieved on 2007-09-13.
